★ ATTORNEY REVIEWED — LEGAL ACCURACY VERIFIED
Reviewer: Steve Hayes, J.D. — Founder & Managing Attorney
NC Bar: #18224 | SC Bar | Focus: Motorcycle TBI, NC Helmet Law, Anti-Rider Bias, Contributory Negligence Defense
Last Reviewed: March 2026
Educational content only — not legal advice. Results vary by case.
Motorcycle Brain Injury Charlotte NC: Why Motorcycle TBI Is the Most Severe — and How to Win the Claim
Motorcycle riders are 29 times more likely to die in a crash than passenger car occupants per mile traveled — and traumatic brain injury is the leading cause of motorcycle crash fatality and permanent disability. The absence of a vehicle frame, airbag, or seatbelt system means that motorcycle TBI victims sustain the full force of the collision with only a helmet and their protective gear between their brain and the road. Attorney Steve Hayes, J.D. and associate attorney Cameron Bauer, Esq. of Charlotte NC Car Accident Lawyers Group have represented motorcycle TBI victims in Mecklenburg County for over 33 years — fighting the pervasive anti-rider bias that follows motorcyclists into every insurance negotiation and courtroom. Call (980) 239-2275 — 24/7, no fee unless we win.
TL;DR — Motorcycle Brain Injury Charlotte: 6 Key Facts
- NC requires helmet use for all motorcycle riders under N.C.G.S. § 20-140.4 — but helmet use does not prevent TBI and helmet non-use, while creating a statutory violation, does not automatically bar TBI recovery under NC’s specific helmet law contributory negligence rules.
- Anti-rider bias is the greatest threat to motorcycle TBI recovery in NC. Insurance companies and juries systematically assign higher fault to motorcycle riders regardless of actual crash facts — making early evidence preservation and expert accident reconstruction essential to pre-empting bias with objective data.
- Motorcycle TBI produces the most severe injuries of any road crash type. Without vehicle crash protection, motorcycle riders sustain direct high-energy impacts to the head, chest, and limbs — producing severe TBI, polytrauma, and fatality at rates far exceeding car occupants.
- Motorcycle UIM coverage rules in NC are different from car UIM. Motorcycle UIM policies typically cannot be stacked with household car UIM policies — making the selection of adequate motorcycle UIM limits at policy inception the single most important financial protection decision a rider makes.
- Most motorcycle TBI crashes are caused by other drivers. NHTSA data shows that in multi-vehicle motorcycle crashes, the other driver was at fault in approximately 66% of cases — typically failing to yield to the motorcycle at intersections or making unsafe lane changes.
- Wrongful death TBI claims are disproportionately common in motorcycle cases. When motorcycle TBI is fatal, the wrongful death claim involves all the wrongful death damages under NC § 28A-18-2 — including loss of future earnings, loss of consortium for the spouse, and funeral expenses.
Reviewed by: Steve Hayes, J.D. (NC #18224) | Contributing: Cameron Bauer, Esq. (NC #63306) | Last Updated: March 2026
Motorcycle Brain Injury in Charlotte — Free Evaluation 24/7
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Why Motorcycle TBI Is the Most Severe Road Crash Injury
A passenger car occupant in a crash is protected by a steel cage, crumple zones engineered to absorb collision energy, multiple airbag systems, and a three-point seatbelt restraint system that limits head excursion to inches. A motorcycle rider has none of these. When a motorcycle crashes at highway speed, the rider becomes an unrestrained projectile subjected to the full crash delta-V, the impact energy of contact with the ground or other vehicles, and the secondary impacts of road sliding. The result is TBI severity that routinely exceeds even high-energy car crash outcomes — including rates of diffuse axonal injury, basal skull fracture, and fatal intracranial hemorrhage that are among the highest of any traumatic mechanism.
| Outcome Measure | Motorcycle Rider | Car Occupant | Rider Risk Multiplier |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fatality per 100M VMT | ~26 | ~0.9 | 29× |
| TBI in fatal crashes | ~37% of fatalities | ~22% | ~1.7× |
| Severe TBI in survivors | Higher rate | Lower rate | Significantly elevated |
| Polytrauma with TBI | Very common — orthopedic + TBI | Less common | Substantially elevated |
TBI Mechanisms in Motorcycle Crashes
Direct Head Impact — Ground or Vehicle
When a rider is ejected, the head impacts the road surface, guardrail, curb, or other vehicle at near-crash-speed. Even helmeted riders sustain significant TBI forces because helmets attenuate rather than eliminate head impact energy. Unhelmeted riders sustain direct skull and brain impact at full kinetic energy.
Ejection and Road Sliding
Ejected riders frequently sustain multiple sequential head impacts — initial ejection impact plus secondary impacts during road sliding or tumbling. Each impact is a separate TBI event; cumulative multi-impact TBI produces more severe neurological damage than a single equivalent-energy impact.
High-Speed Rotational Injury (DAI)
High-speed motorcycle crashes generate rotational head accelerations sufficient to produce diffuse axonal injury — the most severe, most permanent TBI pattern. At highway speeds (60–75 mph), the rotational forces in a motorcycle ejection typically far exceed those in even high-energy car crashes. DAI in motorcycle TBI cases frequently produces coma and permanent severe disability.
Polytrauma Complicating TBI
Motorcycle TBI rarely occurs in isolation — riders typically sustain concurrent orthopedic injuries (long bone fractures, pelvic fractures, spine injuries), thoracic injuries (rib fractures, pneumothorax), and abdominal injuries. Polytrauma complicates TBI recovery, increases total life care plan costs, and requires a larger expert medical team to comprehensively document all injury components.
NC Helmet Law & Contributory Negligence — What Riders Need to Know
North Carolina’s motorcycle helmet law under N.C.G.S. § 20-140.4 requires all motorcycle operators and passengers to wear a Department of Transportation (DOT)-approved helmet. Failure to wear a helmet is a statutory violation — but under NC law, this violation does not automatically constitute contributory negligence sufficient to bar TBI recovery. The defense must specifically prove that helmet non-use was a proximate cause of the TBI injuries suffered — and in cases involving diffuse axonal injury or rotational TBI mechanisms where helmets do not prevent the injury type, this causal connection is frequently disputed.
Insurance companies routinely attempt to exploit helmet non-use as an automatic contributory negligence bar in motorcycle TBI cases — citing the statutory violation as per se contributory negligence. Our attorneys counter with biomechanical expert testimony demonstrating that the specific TBI sustained (diffuse axonal injury from rotational acceleration, temporal bone fracture from lateral impact, brainstem hemorrhage) would have occurred regardless of helmet use, or that the helmet worn met DOT standards and the TBI resulted from forces exceeding any helmet’s protective capacity. This defense requires specialized motorcycle crash reconstruction and biomechanical analysis.
Anti-Rider Bias — The Hidden Threat to Motorcycle TBI Claims
Insurance adjusters, defense investigators, and jurors frequently approach motorcycle TBI cases with a preconceived bias that riders assume the risk of their activity or that “motorcycle riders are reckless by nature.” This cultural bias has no legal foundation — motorcycle riders have the same rights and protections under NC traffic law as car drivers — but it manifests in systematically higher fault assignments to motorcycle riders in contested liability disputes, lower settlement offers relative to equivalent car accident TBI cases, and jury instructions that must specifically address the anti-rider bias risk. Steve Hayes has navigated Mecklenburg County motorcycle TBI cases against this bias for over 33 years, building the objective evidence record that forces adjusters and jurors to confront the actual crash facts rather than stereotypes.
How We Defeat Anti-Rider Bias
Objective Crash Evidence First
EDR data from the at-fault vehicle; traffic and intersection camera footage; skid mark and debris field analysis; independent witness statements — all gathered before the insurance company builds its narrative and before bias can substitute for evidence.
ACTAR-Certified Motorcycle Reconstructionist
A motorcycle crash reconstructionist with ACTAR certification produces an objective technical analysis of crash causation that counters bias with physics — establishing exactly what each driver did, when, and at what speed, in terms that present well to adjusters and juries.
Rider Character Evidence
Motorcycle safety course completion, clean driving record, years of riding experience, MSF (Motorcycle Safety Foundation) training — all humanize the rider and directly counter the “reckless rider” narrative before it takes hold in the adjuster’s or jury’s perception.
Human Impact Evidence
Day-in-the-Life video, family testimony, and neuropsychological documentation showing what the TBI has taken from a productive, experienced motorcyclist shifts the focus from bias to the catastrophic human cost of the other driver’s negligence.
Most Common Causes of Motorcycle TBI Crashes in Charlotte
- Left-turn crashes — the leading cause: A car making a left turn fails to yield to an oncoming motorcycle, misjudging the motorcycle’s speed or failing to see it entirely. The oncoming motorcycle strikes the turning vehicle’s side or front — a high-energy side-impact that frequently produces severe or fatal TBI. These crashes account for approximately 42% of motorcycle fatalities in multi-vehicle crashes.
- Rear-end crashes: A following vehicle fails to see or react to the motorcycle — rear-ending the rider and launching them over the front of the motorcycle into direct head-first road or vehicle impact. Common in Charlotte at stop lights on South Boulevard, Tryon Street, and other high-traffic corridors.
- Lane changes without yielding: A car driver changes lanes without checking mirrors or blind spots, striking the motorcycle traveling in the adjacent lane. The side impact typically causes the rider to lose control and fall or be struck by additional traffic.
- Opening car doors (dooring): A parked car driver opens their door into the path of an approaching motorcycle — causing the rider to strike the door or swerve into traffic. Common in Charlotte’s uptown corridor, NoDa, and South End.
- Road hazards — potholes, debris, loose gravel: Road conditions that a car occupant experiences as a minor bump can cause a motorcycle crash and TBI. NCDOT or City of Charlotte liability attaches when road hazards resulted from inadequate maintenance — with the 180-day government tort claim notice requirement.
- DUI drivers: Drunk driving is a disproportionate cause of motorcycle TBI given the visibility challenges intoxicated drivers face at night — when motorcycle crashes concentrate. DUI motorcycle TBI cases trigger the uncapped punitive damages framework under N.C.G.S. § 1D-25.
UIM Coverage for Motorcyclists in NC — Critical Differences from Car Coverage
NC motorcycle UIM coverage rules differ critically from car UIM: motorcycle UIM policies cannot typically be stacked with household automobile UIM policies — meaning a motorcycle rider who carries $100,000 UIM on their bike cannot add their household car’s $100,000 UIM on top of it as a car occupant could. This limitation makes choosing adequate motorcycle UIM limits at policy inception essential, because the motorcycle UIM policy may be the only first-party coverage available when the at-fault driver has minimum limits.
We strongly recommend that every Charlotte motorcycle rider carry UIM limits of at least $300,000 per person on their motorcycle policy — the minimum that provides meaningful protection for moderate TBI damages. For severe TBI cases involving catastrophic injury or wrongful death, even $1,000,000 in motorcycle UIM may be insufficient to fund the full damages demand, and umbrella policies should be investigated for supplemental coverage.
Our attorneys conduct a comprehensive insurance coverage audit in every motorcycle TBI case — identifying the at-fault driver’s full liability coverage, the rider’s motorcycle UIM, any applicable household car UIM (when the rider was not on the motorcycle at the time, e.g., a pedestrian or passenger), umbrella policies, and employer coverage if the at-fault driver was operating a company vehicle. For the complete damages framework, see our TBI damages calculation guide.
Wrongful Death — When Motorcycle TBI Is Fatal
Motorcycle TBI is fatal at far higher rates than car crash TBI — making wrongful death claims a disproportionately common component of motorcycle accident litigation in Charlotte. When a motorcycle TBI victim dies — at the scene, in the hospital, or after months in an ICU — the claim transforms from a personal injury action to a wrongful death action under N.C.G.S. § 28A-18-2. Wrongful death damages include: the economic value of the decedent’s future earning capacity; loss of consortium for the surviving spouse; loss of parental guidance for surviving minor children; pre-death pain and suffering (the victim’s survival claim); and funeral and burial expenses.
The wrongful death claim must be brought by the estate administrator — typically the surviving spouse or next of kin — within 2 years of the date of death under NC’s wrongful death statute. Steve Hayes has guided Charlotte families through the wrongful death process following motorcycle TBI fatalities for over 33 years. For the complete wrongful death damages framework, see our wrongful death damages NC page.
Expert Team for Motorcycle TBI Cases
Motorcycle TBI cases require the standard TBI medical expert team plus motorcycle-specific technical experts: an ACTAR-certified motorcycle crash reconstructionist for objective crash causation analysis; a biomechanical engineer for helmet effectiveness analysis and TBI force calculation; and a motorcycle safety expert for rider conduct evidence where anti-rider bias must be specifically countered. The TBI medical team — neurologist, neuroradiologist, neuropsychologist — documents the brain injury. A Certified Life Care Planner projects lifetime care costs for moderate-to-severe TBI, coordinated with a forensic economist for present-value calculation. For severe motorcycle TBI with polytrauma, additional specialists document each injury component’s contribution to total damages. See our life care planning TBI page for the full future damages methodology.
Charlotte Motorcycle Crash Corridors
NCDOT 2023 crash data identifies the highest motorcycle crash concentrations in Mecklenburg County at: I-85 — high-speed corridor connecting Gastonia to Concord with heavy traffic and frequent lane-change crashes; South Boulevard corridor — urban surface road with high door-zone exposure and intersection left-turn crashes; Independence Boulevard (US-74) — six-lane surface road with frequent left-turn crash risk at uncontrolled median openings; Brookshire Freeway (I-277) — compressed interchange geometry producing emergency braking rear-end crashes; and NC-51 and Pineville-Matthews Road — suburban arterials with high left-turn crash exposure. The Lake Norman area (I-77 North, NC-73) also produces a significant volume of Charlotte-area motorcycle TBI cases on weekend recreational routes.
Related TBI & Motorcycle Resources
Frequently Asked Questions — Motorcycle Brain Injury in Charlotte NC
Why is motorcycle TBI more severe than car accident TBI?
Motorcycle riders lack all the crash protection systems that protect car occupants — no steel frame, crumple zones, airbags, or seatbelt restraint. When a motorcycle crashes, the rider becomes an unrestrained projectile subjected to the full crash delta-V, road impact energy, and secondary impacts from sliding or tumbling. The result is TBI severity that routinely exceeds car crash outcomes, with diffuse axonal injury, basal skull fracture, and fatal intracranial hemorrhage at substantially higher rates. NHTSA data shows motorcycle riders are 29 times more likely to die in a crash than car occupants per mile traveled.
Does not wearing a helmet prevent TBI recovery in a motorcycle accident in NC?
Not automatically. NC’s helmet law requires DOT-approved helmets under § 20-140.4, and non-use is a statutory violation — but under NC law this violation does not automatically constitute contributory negligence barring TBI recovery. The defense must specifically prove that helmet non-use was a proximate cause of the injuries suffered. In cases involving diffuse axonal injury or rotational TBI where no helmet prevents the injury mechanism, this causal connection is frequently disputed with biomechanical expert testimony showing the TBI would have occurred regardless of helmet use.
What is anti-rider bias and how does it affect a motorcycle TBI claim in NC?
Anti-rider bias is the pervasive cultural assumption that motorcycle riders are reckless and assume the risk of their activity — causing insurance adjusters and juries to assign higher fault to riders regardless of actual crash facts. This produces systematically lower settlement offers and higher contributory negligence findings in motorcycle TBI cases compared to equivalent car accident TBI cases. We counter bias with ACTAR-certified motorcycle reconstruction producing objective crash causation analysis, rider safety record evidence, and human impact documentation that forces adjusters and jurors to confront actual facts rather than stereotypes.
What is the most common cause of motorcycle TBI crashes in Charlotte?
Left-turn crashes are the most common cause of motorcycle fatality and TBI in multi-vehicle crashes — a car making a left turn fails to yield to an oncoming motorcycle, misjudging the motorcycle’s speed or failing to see it. These crashes account for approximately 42% of motorcycle fatalities in multi-vehicle collisions. The oncoming motorcycle strikes the turning vehicle at high relative speed, producing a high-energy side-impact that frequently generates severe or fatal TBI. Charlotte intersection left-turn crashes concentrate on South Boulevard, Independence Boulevard, and residential arterials throughout Mecklenburg County.
Can I recover TBI damages if I was partially at fault in a motorcycle accident in NC?
No — NC’s pure contributory negligence doctrine bars all recovery with even 1% fault on the motorcycle rider. Insurance companies exploit anti-rider bias to assign contributory fault — often arguing that the rider was speeding, weaving, or failed to take evasive action. We defeat these arguments with ACTAR-certified motorcycle crash reconstruction, EDR data from the at-fault vehicle, traffic camera footage, and independent witness statements gathered before the insurance carrier builds its narrative. The first 24–48 hours after a motorcycle TBI crash are the most critical window for evidence preservation.
What UIM coverage should a Charlotte motorcycle rider carry?
We recommend at least $300,000 per person UIM on every motorcycle policy — the minimum providing meaningful protection for moderate TBI damages where the at-fault driver carries minimum NC liability limits ($30,000). For riders who can afford it, $500,000–$1,000,000 per person is appropriate given the catastrophic injury potential of motorcycle crashes. Unlike car UIM, motorcycle UIM typically cannot be stacked with household automobile UIM policies — making the motorcycle policy itself the only first-party coverage layer when the at-fault driver is underinsured.
Can I stack motorcycle UIM with my household car UIM in NC?
Generally, no — motorcycle UIM policies in NC typically cannot be stacked with household automobile UIM policies. NC’s anti-stacking rules for motorcycle coverage mean that when you are injured as a motorcycle rider, your recovery from first-party UIM is typically limited to your motorcycle policy’s UIM limits, not the combined total of your motorcycle and household car UIM. This critical difference from car UIM stacking makes adequate motorcycle UIM selection essential — and makes thorough coverage investigation after a crash important to identify any exceptions based on specific policy language.
How much is a motorcycle brain injury case worth in Charlotte NC?
Motorcycle TBI cases produce some of the highest personal injury settlement and verdict values in Mecklenburg County because the injury severity (severe TBI with polytrauma is common) combines with available insurance coverage to produce demands that frequently exceed $1M–$5M+. Severe motorcycle TBI with permanent disability, a full life care plan, lost earning capacity analysis, and strong contributory negligence defense can produce demands exceeding $5M–$10M when the at-fault driver carries adequate commercial or umbrella coverage. The value is driven by severity, expert documentation quality, and total insurance coverage available.
What happens if a motorcycle TBI victim dies in Charlotte?
When motorcycle TBI is fatal, the claim becomes a wrongful death action under N.C.G.S. § 28A-18-2. The estate administrator — typically the surviving spouse or next of kin — brings the claim within 2 years of the date of death. Wrongful death damages include the economic value of future earning capacity, loss of consortium for the surviving spouse, loss of parental guidance for minor children, pre-death pain and suffering (survival claim), and funeral expenses. Steve Hayes guides Charlotte families through the wrongful death process after motorcycle TBI fatalities. See our wrongful death damages NC page for complete information.
Does North Carolina require motorcycle helmets?
Yes — N.C.G.S. § 20-140.4 requires all motorcycle operators and passengers in North Carolina to wear a Department of Transportation (DOT)-approved helmet at all times. NC is a universal helmet state — unlike states that permit helmet-free riding for riders over 21. The DOT standard requires specific impact attenuation, penetration resistance, and retention system performance. Novelty helmets that lack DOT certification do not satisfy the statutory requirement even if they resemble compliant helmets.
What is diffuse axonal injury and why is it common in motorcycle crashes?
Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) occurs when rotational forces shear the brain’s axonal connections throughout the white matter — disrupting neural communication pathways across entire functional networks. DAI is disproportionately common in motorcycle crashes because ejection and high-speed road impact generate rotational head accelerations that far exceed those in most car crash scenarios. DAI is frequently invisible on standard CT and MRI, requires DTI for diagnosis, and often produces coma and permanent severe disability. For a complete explanation of DAI diagnosis and documentation, see our TBI hub page.
Can I recover if a road defect caused my motorcycle TBI crash in Charlotte?
Yes — road defects including potholes, missing signage, inadequate pavement markings, and defective road surfaces that cause motorcycle crashes create potential government liability against NCDOT or the City of Charlotte. However, claims against government entities under the NC Tort Claims Act require formal notice within 180 days of the crash date — a hard deadline that is earlier than the standard 3-year personal injury statute of limitations. Contact our attorneys immediately if a road defect contributed to your motorcycle TBI crash to preserve the government claim deadline.
How does polytrauma affect a motorcycle TBI claim in NC?
Polytrauma — concurrent injuries affecting multiple body systems in addition to TBI — is common in motorcycle crashes and significantly increases total damages. Orthopedic injuries (long bone fractures, pelvic fractures, spine injuries), thoracic injuries, and abdominal injuries each contribute independent economic damages (medical costs, rehabilitation, lost capacity) and non-economic damages to the total claim. A complete polytrauma motorcycle TBI case requires a larger expert team — orthopedic surgeon, pulmonologist, spine specialist — in addition to the standard TBI medical team. Life care plans in polytrauma TBI cases are substantially more complex and more expensive than pure TBI cases.
Can a DUI driver’s motorcycle TBI case result in punitive damages in NC?
Yes — when a drunk driver causes a motorcycle TBI in Charlotte, NC’s punitive damages framework removes the standard $250,000 cap under N.C.G.S. § 1D-25, creating unlimited punitive exposure. DUI motorcycle TBI cases with uncapped punitive exposure are among the clearest policy-limits tender situations in NC personal injury practice — carriers facing a documented DUI crash causing severe or fatal motorcycle TBI typically tender their full liability limits rather than risk a Mecklenburg County jury’s punitive award. We obtain all DUI investigation records, BAC results, and prior impaired driving history in every DUI motorcycle TBI case.
What is a motorcycle crash reconstructionist and do I need one for my TBI case?
A motorcycle crash reconstructionist is an engineer certified by ACTAR (Accreditation Commission for Traffic Accident Reconstruction) who scientifically analyzes crash data — speeds, positions, road conditions, EDR data, physical evidence — to determine crash causation with objective technical accuracy. In motorcycle TBI cases where anti-rider bias makes the liability dispute particularly dangerous, an ACTAR-certified motorcycle reconstructionist is essential to counter the insurance company’s own expert and to present crash causation to the jury as a matter of physics rather than opinion. We retain motorcycle-specific reconstructionists (not just general crash reconstruction specialists) in every contested liability motorcycle TBI case.
How long do I have to file a motorcycle TBI lawsuit in NC?
The standard personal injury statute of limitations under N.C.G.S. § 1-52 is 3 years from the date of the motorcycle TBI crash. For wrongful death claims, the statute is 2 years from the date of death under § 28A-18-2. For claims against government entities (NCDOT, City of Charlotte) for road defects, formal notice must be given within 180 days of the crash. Despite these deadlines, evidence preservation must begin immediately — contact our attorneys within 24–72 hours of any motorcycle TBI crash to preserve EDR data, camera footage, and witness availability.
What should I do immediately after a motorcycle TBI crash in Charlotte?
Call 911 immediately. Accept emergency medical care — document all symptoms to EMS and ER staff. Do not remove your helmet until medical personnel assess your spine. Preserve your riding gear — jacket, gloves, boots — as physical evidence of impact force and abrasion pattern. Do not give any recorded statement to any insurance company. Preserve all witness contact information. Photograph the accident scene and motorcycle before anything is moved. Call our attorneys at (980) 239-2275 immediately so evidence preservation demands can be served and the critical first-response investigation can begin.
How do I contact a Charlotte motorcycle brain injury attorney?
Call Charlotte NC Car Accident Lawyers Group at (980) 239-2275 — available 24/7. Steve Hayes and Cameron Bauer evaluate motorcycle TBI cases throughout Charlotte and Mecklenburg County. We retain ACTAR-certified motorcycle crash reconstructionists, preserve EDR evidence, fight anti-rider bias with objective crash analysis, and build the complete expert damages record needed to maximize recovery. No fee unless we win, and we advance all expert costs including crash reconstruction and biomechanical analysis.
Your Charlotte Motorcycle Brain Injury Attorneys
Steve Hayes, J.D. — Founder & Managing Attorney
Steve Hayes has represented motorcycle TBI victims against major NC insurers for over 33 years — fighting the anti-rider bias that follows motorcyclists into every negotiation and building the crash reconstruction records that force full-value settlements in even the most vigorously defended cases.
NC Bar: #18224 | SC | Campbell University School of Law, J.D.
Cameron Bauer, Esq. — Associate Attorney
Cameron Bauer coordinates crash reconstruction, UIM coverage investigation, helmet law analysis, and the complete expert damages architecture — life care planning, vocational analysis, and forensic economics — in motorcycle TBI cases throughout Mecklenburg County.
NC Bar: #63306 | Elon University School of Law, J.D.
Motorcycle Brain Injury in Charlotte — Call 24/7
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Disclaimer: Educational purposes only — not legal advice. Results vary by case.
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